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一个集合是由可哈希对象组成的_可变_且_无序_的容器。 集合的成员必须互不相同，不允许有重复项。 集合可以存放多种不同的数据类型，甚至像由tuple组成的tuples这样的嵌套结构，只要所有元素都能_被哈希_。 集合还有一种不可变的版本，叫做frozensets。

集合最常见的用途，是从其他数据结构或元素分组中快速去除重复项。 当不需要保持顺序、也不需要追踪重复项时，集合还常用于高效比较。

和其他容器类型（字典、数组、元组）一样，sets支持：

• 通过for item in <set>进行迭代
• 通过in和not in进行成员检查，
• 通过len()计算长度，以及
• 通过copy()进行浅拷贝

sets不支持：

• 任何形式的下标访问
• 通过排序或插入来控制顺序
• 切片
• 通过+拼接

在set中检查成员的时间复杂度是常数级（平均而言）；而在list或string中检查成员时，时间复杂度会随着数据长度的增加而增长。 <set>.union()、<set>.intersection()或<set>.difference()等方法的时间复杂度同样是常数级（平均而言）。

集合字面量

可以直接把set写成_集合字面量_，用花括号{}把元素括起来，元素之间用逗号分隔。 重复项会被自动忽略：

>>> one_element = {'➕'}
{'➕'}

>>> multiple_elements = {'➕', '🔻', '🔹', '🔆'}
{'➕', '🔻', '🔹', '🔆'}

>>> multiple_duplicates =  {'Hello!', 'Hello!', 'Hello!', 
                            '¡Hola!','Привіт!', 'こんにちは！', 
                            '¡Hola!','Привіт!', 'こんにちは！'}
{'こんにちは！', '¡Hola!', 'Hello!', 'Привіт!'}

集合字面量和dict字面量使用相同的花括号，这意味着要创建空set，必须使用set()。

集合构造函数

set()（set类的构造函数）可以接受任何作为实参传入的iterable。 会逐个遍历iterable中的元素，并逐个添加到set中。 元素的顺序不会保留，重复项会被自动忽略：

# To create an empty set, the constructor must be used.
>>> no_elements = set()
set()

# The tuple is unpacked & each element is added.  
# Duplicates are removed.
>>> elements_from_tuple = set(("Parrot", "Bird", 
                               334782, "Bird", "Parrot"))
{334782, 'Bird', 'Parrot'}

# The list is unpacked & each element is added.
# Duplicates are removed.
>>> elements_from_list = set([2, 3, 2, 3, 3, 3, 5, 
                              7, 11, 7, 11, 13, 13])
{2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13}

创建集合时的坑

由于“解包”行为，用set()处理字符串时，结果可能会出乎意料：

# String elements (Unicode code points) are 
# iterated through and added *individually*.
>>> elements_string = set("Timbuktu")
{'T', 'b', 'i', 'k', 'm', 't', 'u'}

# Unicode separators and positioning code points 
# are also added *individually*.
>>> multiple_code_points_string = set('अभ्यास')
{'अ', 'भ', 'य', 'स', 'ा', '्'}

集合可以存放不同的数据类型和_嵌套_的数据类型，但所有set元素都必须_可哈希_：

# Attempting to use a list for a set member throws a TypeError
>>> lists_as_elements = {['🌈','💦'], 
                        ['☁️','⭐️','🌍'], 
                        ['⛵️', '🚲', '🚀']}

Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
TypeError: unhashable type: 'list'


# Standard sets are mutable, so they cannot be hashed.
>>> sets_as_elements = {{'🌈','💦'}, 
                        {'☁️','⭐️','🌍'}, 
                        {'⛵️', '🚲', '🚀'}}

Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
TypeError: unhashable type: 'set'

使用集合

集合的方法通常模仿数学上的集合运算。 这些方法大多（但并非全部）都有对应的运算符。 方法通常接受任何iterable作为实参，而运算符则要求运算两侧都是sets或frozensets。

不相交集合

<set>.isdisjoint(<other_collection>)方法用于测试一个集合的元素是否与另一个set的元素有重叠。 这个方法接受任何iterable或set作为实参。 如果两个集合没有任何共同元素，就返回True；如果有共享元素，则返回False。 没有对应的运算符：

# Both mammals and additional_animals are lists.
>>> mammals = ['squirrel','dog','cat','cow', 'tiger', 'elephant']
>>> additional_animals = ['pangolin', 'panda', 'parrot', 
                          'lemur', 'tiger', 'pangolin']

# Animals is a dict.
>>> animals = {'chicken': 'white',
               'sparrow': 'grey',
               'eagle': 'brown and white',
               'albatross': 'grey and white',
               'crow': 'black',
               'elephant': 'grey', 
               'dog': 'rust',
               'cow': 'black and white',
               'tiger': 'orange and black',
               'cat': 'grey',
               'squirrel': 'black'}
               
# Birds is a set.
>>> birds = {'crow','sparrow','eagle','chicken', 'albatross'}

# Mammals and birds don't share any elements.
>>> birds.isdisjoint(mammals)
True

# There are also no shared elements between 
# additional_animals and birds.
>>> birds.isdisjoint(additional_animals)
True

# Animals and mammals have shared elements.
# **Note** The first object needs to be a set or converted to a set
# since .isdisjoint() is a set method.
>>> set(animals).isdisjoint(mammals)
False

子集与超集

<set>.issubset(<other_collection>)用于检查<set>中的每个元素是否也都在<other_collection>中。 对应的运算符形式是<set> <= <other_set>：

# Both mammals and additional_animals are lists.
>>> mammals = ['squirrel','dog','cat','cow', 'tiger', 'elephant']
>>> additional_animals = ['pangolin', 'panda', 'parrot', 
                          'lemur', 'tiger', 'pangolin']

# Animals is a dict.
>>> animals = {'chicken': 'white',
               'sparrow': 'grey',
               'eagle': 'brown and white',
               'albatross': 'grey and white',
               'crow': 'black',
               'elephant': 'grey', 
               'dog': 'rust',
               'cow': 'black and white',
               'tiger': 'orange and black',
               'cat': 'grey',
               'squirrel': 'black'}

# Birds is a set.
>>> birds = {'crow','sparrow','eagle','chicken', 'albatross'}

# Set methods will take any iterable as an argument.
# All members of birds are also members of animals.
>>> birds.issubset(animals)
True

# All members of mammals also appear in animals.
# **Note** The first object needs to be a set or converted to a set
# since .issubset() is a set method.
>>> set(mammals).issubset(animals)
True

# Both objects need to be sets to use a set operator
>>> birds <= set(mammals)
False

# A set is always a loose subset of itself.
>>> set(additional_animals) <= set(additional_animals)
True

<set>.issuperset(<other_collection>)是.issubset()的逆运算。 它用于检查<other_collection>中的每个元素是否也都在<set>中。 对应的运算符形式是<set> >= <other_set>：

# All members of mammals also appear in animals.
# **Note** The first object needs to be a set or converted to a set
# since .issuperset() is a set method.
>>> set(animals).issuperset(mammals)
True

# All members of animals do not show up as members of birds.
>>> birds.issuperset(animals)
False

# Both objects need to be sets to use a set operator
>>> birds >= set(mammals)
False

# A set is always a loose superset of itself.
>>> set(animals) >= set(animals)
True

集合的交集

<set>.intersection(*<other iterables>)返回一个新的set，其中的元素是原set和所有<others>共有的（换句话说，就是所有元素都相交的那个set）。 这个方法的运算符版本是<set> & <other set> & <other set 2> & ... <other set n>：

>>> perennials = {'Annatto','Asafetida','Asparagus','Azalea',
                 'Winter Savory', 'Broccoli','Curry Leaf','Fennel', 
                 'Kaffir Lime','Kale','Lavender','Mint','Oranges',
                 'Oregano', 'Tarragon', 'Wild Bergamot'}

>>> annuals = {'Corn', 'Zucchini', 'Sweet Peas', 'Marjoram', 
              'Summer Squash', 'Okra','Shallots', 'Basil', 
              'Cilantro', 'Cumin', 'Sunflower', 'Chervil', 
              'Summer Savory'}

>>> herbs = ['Annatto','Asafetida','Basil','Chervil','Cilantro',
            'Curry Leaf','Fennel','Kaffir Lime','Lavender',
            'Marjoram','Mint','Oregano','Summer Savory', 
            'Tarragon','Wild Bergamot','Wild Celery',
            'Winter Savory']


# Methods will take any iterable as an argument.
>>> perennial_herbs = perennials.intersection(herbs)
{'Annatto', 'Asafetida', 'Curry Leaf', 'Fennel', 'Kaffir Lime',
 'Lavender', 'Mint', 'Oregano', 'Wild Bergamot','Winter Savory'}

# Operators require both groups be sets.
>>> annuals & set(herbs)
 {'Basil', 'Chervil', 'Marjoram', 'Cilantro'}

集合的并集

<set>.union(*<other iterables>)返回一个新的set，其中的元素来自<set>和所有<other iterables>。 这个方法的运算符形式是<set> | <other set 1> | <other set 2> | ... | <other set n>：

>>> perennials = {'Asparagus', 'Broccoli', 'Sweet Potato', 'Kale'}
>>> annuals = {'Corn', 'Zucchini', 'Sweet Peas', 'Summer Squash'}
>>> more_perennials = ['Radicchio', 'Rhubarb', 
                      'Spinach', 'Watercress']

# Methods will take any iterable as an argument.
>>> perennials.union(more_perennials)
{'Asparagus','Broccoli','Kale','Radicchio','Rhubarb',
'Spinach','Sweet Potato','Watercress'}

# Operators require sets.
>>> set(more_perennials) | perennials
{'Asparagus',
 'Broccoli',
 'Kale',
 'Radicchio',
 'Rhubarb',
 'Spinach',
 'Sweet Potato',
 'Watercress'}

集合的差集

<set>.difference(*<other iterables>)返回一个新的set，其中的元素来自原<set>但不在<others>中。 这个方法的运算符版本是<set> - <other set 1> - <other set 2> - ...<other set n>。

>>> berries_and_veggies = {'Asparagus', 
                          'Broccoli', 
                          'Watercress', 
                          'Goji Berries', 
                          'Goose Berries', 
                          'Ramps', 
                          'Walking Onions', 
                          'Blackberries', 
                          'Strawberries', 
                          'Rhubarb', 
                          'Kale', 
                          'Artichokes', 
                          'Currants'}

>>> veggies = ('Asparagus', 'Broccoli', 'Watercress', 'Ramps',
               'Walking Onions', 'Rhubarb', 'Kale', 'Artichokes')

# Methods will take any iterable as an argument.
>>> berries = berries_and_veggies.difference(veggies)
{'Blackberries','Currants','Goji Berries',
 'Goose Berries', 'Strawberries'}

# Operators require sets.
>>> berries_and_veggies - berries
{'Artichokes','Asparagus','Broccoli','Kale',
'Ramps','Rhubarb','Walking Onions','Watercress'}

<set>.symmetric_difference(<other iterable>)返回一个新的set，其中包含存在于<set>或<other>中的元素，但不会同时存在于两者中。 这个方法的运算符版本是<set> ^ <other set>：

>>> plants_1 = {'🌲','🍈','🌵', '🥑','🌴', '🥭'}
>>> plants_2 = ('🌸','🌴', '🌺', '🌲', '🌻', '🌵')


# Methods will take any iterable as an argument.
>>> fruit_and_flowers = plants_1.symmetric_difference(plants_2)
>>> fruit_and_flowers
{'🌸', '🌺', '🍈', '🥑', '🥭','🌻' }


# Operators require both groups be sets.
>>> fruit_and_flowers ^ plants_1
{'🌲',  '🌸', '🌴', '🌵','🌺', '🌻'}

>>> fruit_and_flowers ^ set(plants_2)
{'🥭', '🌴', '🌵', '🍈', '🌲', '🥑'}

>>> one = {'black pepper','breadcrumbs','celeriac','chickpea flour',
           'flour','lemon','parsley','salt','soy sauce',
           'sunflower oil','water'}

>>> two = {'black pepper','cornstarch','garlic','ginger',
           'lemon juice','lemon zest','salt','soy sauce','sugar',
           'tofu','vegetable oil','vegetable stock','water'}

>>> three = {'black pepper','garlic','lemon juice','mixed herbs',
             'nutritional yeast', 'olive oil','salt','silken tofu',
             'smoked tofu','soy sauce','spaghetti','turmeric'}

>>> four = {'barley malt','bell pepper','cashews','flour',
            'fresh basil','garlic','garlic powder', 'honey',
            'mushrooms','nutritional yeast','olive oil','oregano',
            'red onion', 'red pepper flakes','rosemary','salt',
            'sugar','tomatoes','water','yeast'}

>>> intersections = (one & two | one & three | one & four | 
                     two & three | two & four | three & four)
...
{'black pepper','flour','garlic','lemon juice','nutritional yeast', 
'olive oil','salt','soy sauce', 'sugar','water'}

# The ^ operation will include some of the items in intersections, 
# which means it is not a "clean" symmetric difference - there
# are overlapping members.
>>> (one ^ two ^ three ^ four) & intersections
{'black pepper', 'garlic', 'soy sauce', 'water'}

# Overlapping members need to be removed in a separate step
# when there are more than two sets that need symmetric difference.
>>> (one ^ two ^ three ^ four) - intersections
...
{'barley malt','bell pepper','breadcrumbs', 'cashews','celeriac',
  'chickpea flour','cornstarch','fresh basil', 'garlic powder',
  'ginger','honey','lemon','lemon zest','mixed herbs','mushrooms',
  'oregano','parsley','red onion','red pepper flakes','rosemary',
  'silken tofu','smoked tofu','spaghetti','sunflower oil', 'tofu', 
  'tomatoes','turmeric','vegetable oil','vegetable stock','yeast'}